While the study of life below water stretches back to antiquity, our modern scientific understanding largely stems from the 18th century. The items in Case 1 focus on modern expeditions which have contributed to the development of the fields of oceanography and marine biology. These include Captain James Cook's voyages in the Pacific Ocean in the 18th century; Charles Darwin's voyage on the H.M.S. Beagle in the first half of the 19th century; the deep-sea exploration of the H.M.S. Challenger in the late 19th century; and the Great Barrier Reef Expedition in the early 20th century.
Cook, James. The Three Voyages of Captain James Cook Round the World. London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, 1821. [Older Printed Books Collection]
Captain James Cook (1728-1779) was a British explorer, cartographer, and naval officer famous for his three voyages between 1768 and 1779 in the Pacific Ocean, particularly to New Zealand and Australia. While the voyages contributed significantly to geographical knowledge, they also coincided with an emerging interest in natural science and influenced the early development of the study of marine biology and oceanography.
Hawkesworth, John. An Account of the Voyages Undertaken by the Order of His Present Majesty for Making Discoveries in the Southern Hemisphere. London: Printed for W. Strahan; and T. Cadell in the Strand, 1773. [Older Printed Books Collection]
John Hawkesworth (c.1715-1773) was an English writer and editor. He was commissioned by the British Admiralty to compile An Account of the Voyages Undertaken in the Southern Hemisphere, which deals primarily with the voyages of Captain James Cook. The work was severely criticized for its inaccuracies.
Cook's voyage on board the H.M.S. Endeavour included one of the first European encounters with the Great Barrier Reef when the ship ran aground on a shoal. The image above is of a 'Chart of Part of the Coast of New South Wales, from Cape Tribulation to Endeavour Straits. By Lieut. J. Cook, 1770.' A note the bottom left-hand corner at Cape Tribulation reads: "On this Ledge the Ship laid 23 Hours, and received much damage."
Map of Malo Island to Efate Island, New Hebrides Islands, South Pacific. London: Published at the Admiralty, 1 October 1894. Large corrections October 1895, April 1904. [Cartographic Visual Collection]
Vanuatu (formerly New Hebrides) is an island nation in the South Pacific. The islands were explored by and named 'New Hebrides' by Captain James Cook during his second voyage in 1774. Like other island nations, Vanuatu and its coral reefs are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, including rising sea levels, coastal erosion, and more frequent storms.
Vanuatu, together with other island nations, have called for a switch from fossil fuels to renewable energy, as well as the introduction of the term 'Ecocide' - the deliberate or negligent destruction of the natural environment - to International Law.
Darwin, Charles. Charles Darwin's diary of the voyage of H.M.S. "Beagle" edited from the ms. by Nora Barlow. Cambridge: The University Press, 1933. [Cooke Collection]
Charles Darwin (1809–1882) was an English naturalist, geologist, and biologist best known for his theory of evolution by means of natural selection. He was the resident naturalist onboard the H.M.S. Beagle from 1831 to 1836 where he collected and studied a range of marine organisms.
Nora Barlow (1885-1989) was a British botanist and geneticist. She was the granddaughter of Charles Darwin and a leading Darwinian scholar during her lifetime.
Darwin, Charles. Charles Darwin's diary of the voyage of H.M.S. "Beagle" edited from the ms. by Nora Barlow. Cambridge: The University Press, 1933. [Cooke Collection]
The H.M.S. Beagle was a Royal Navy 10-gun brig-sloop launched in 1820. For its second voyage (1831-1836) the ship was allocated as a surveying vessel, under the command of Captain Robert FitzRoy. It travelled to South America before circumnavigating the Earth.
Despite suffering from seasickness throughout the voyage, Darwin's research established his reputation as an eminent geologist.
Darwin, Charles. Geological Observations on Coral Reefs, Volcanic Islands, and on South America. London: Smith, Elder, 1851. [Older Printed Books Collection]
Darwin's interest in geology gave rise to his study of coral reefs and their formation, with his first published work being The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs (1842). His study of coral, and the slow process of change leading to the formation of coral islands, contributed to his theory of natural selection.
The plate above from Geological Observations on Coral Reefs, Volcanic Islands, and on South America is described as: 'Shewing the Distribution of the Different Kinds of Coral Reefs, together with the Position of the Active Volcanos in the Map.' The features highlighted include Atolls or Lagoon Islands (Bright blue); Barrier Reefs (Pale blue); Fringing Reefs (Red); and Vermilion spots & streaks active volcanoes.
Jenyns, Leonard. The Zoology of the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, under the command of Captain Fitzroy, R.N., during the years 1832 to 1836. Part IV. Fish. Edited and superintended by Charles Darwin, Esq. London: Published by Smith, Elder and Co., 1839-1843. [Strongroom Collection]
Rev. Leonard Jenyns (1800-1893) was an English clergyman, author and naturalist. He was a founder member of the Ray Society and a noted parson-naturalist.
Jenyns was the first choice for naturalist on the second voyage of the H.M.S. Beagle but declined, due to ill health, and recommended Charles Darwin as his replacement.
Jenyns, Leonard. The Zoology of the voyage of H.M.S. Beagle, under the command of Captain Fitzroy, R.N., during the years 1832 to 1836. Part IV. Fish. Edited and superintended by Charles Darwin, Esq. London: Published by Smith, Elder and Co., 1839-1843. [Strongroom Collection]
The Zoology is a five part work written by various authors, and edited and superintended by Charles Darwin. It includes descriptions of the collections Darwin made during the voyage of the Beagle. The five parts include:
Darwin contributed numerous notes to the text of the parts on Fish and Reptiles.
Darwin, Charles. On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. London: John Murray, 1859. [Strongroom Collection]
Darwin's most significant work On the Origin of Species was published in 1859. It revolutionised our understanding of life and is the foundational text in the field of evolutionary biology.
Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger During the Years 1873-76 Under the Command of Captain George S. Nares and the Late Captain Frank Tourle Thomson. Narrative – Vol. 1, Pt. 1. London: H.M.S.O., 1880-1895. [Older Printed Books Collection]
Following the publication of On the Origin of Species (1959) there was a growing interest in the link between the origins of life and the deep sea. The expedition of the H.M.S. Challenger from 1872 to 1876 was the first to focus exclusively on marine science and is recognised as the birth of oceanography.
It was led by Sir Charles Wyville Thomson (1830-1882), a Scottish naturalist and marine biologist, and focused on deep sea exploration, including determining whether life could exist below about 550 meters.
Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger During the Years 1873-76 Under the Command of Captain George S. Nares and the Late Captain Frank Tourle Thomson. Narrative – Vol. 1, Pt. 1. London: H.M.S.O., 1880-1895. [Older Printed Books Collection]
The H.M.S. Challenger was a small Royal Navy war ship originally launched in 1858. For the expedition, the ship's guns were removed to facilitate scientific equipment with a steam engine fitted to the upper deck.
Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger During the Years 1873-76 Under the Command of Captain George S. Nares and the Late Captain Frank Tourle Thomson. Narrative – Vol. 1, Pt. 1. London: H.M.S.O., 1880-1895. [Older Printed Books Collection]
The expedition received significant funding from the British government and was better equipped than previous expeditions, with separate laboratories for zoology and chemistry.
Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger During the Years 1873-76 Under the Command of Captain George S. Nares and the Late Captain Frank Tourle Thomson. Narrative – Vol. 1, Pt. 1. London: H.M.S.O., 1880-1895. [Older Printed Books Collection]
Deep dredging of the bottom of the oceans using a variety of dredges and trawls, was the primary method used for collecting biological samples. Samples were taken at 362 sites in all of the oceans, with the except of the Arctic.
Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger During the Years 1873-76 Under the Command of Captain George S. Nares and the Late Captain Frank Tourle Thomson. Narrative – Vol. 1, Pt. 1. London: H.M.S.O., 1880-1895. [Older Printed Books Collection]
The outcomes of the expedition included the discovery of over four thousand new species; the first systematic plot of ocean currents and temperatures; an outline of the main contours of the ocean basins; and the discovery of the mid-Atlantic Ridge.
The Report of the Scientific Results of the Exploring Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger was published in fifty volumes. It included illustrations by the British artist and printer Elizabeth Gulland. Both the report and the specimens collected are still used by scientists today.
Report on the Scientific Results of the Voyage of H.M.S. Challenger During the Years 1873-76 Under the Command of Captain George S. Nares and the Late Captain Frank Tourle Thomson. Narrative – Vol. 1, Pt. 1. London: H.M.S.O., 1880-1895. [Older Printed Books Collection]
While the Challenger expedition revolutionised our understanding of the deep sea, only 5% of the ocean has been explored and charted by humans. Much about the depths of the oceans remains unknown.
Dana, James. Corals and Coral Islands. London: Sampson Low, 1872 [Older Printed Books Collection]
James D. Dana (1813–1895) was an American geologist, mineralogist, and naturalist. He was the geologist for the United States Exploring Expedition of 1838–1842 and made important studies of mountain building, volcanic activity, marine life, and the origin and structure of continents and ocean basins.
In Corals and Coral Islands (1872) he investigated coral islands in greater detail than anyone before him, including Charles Darwin. A deeply religious figure, Dana struggled with Darwin's theory of natural selection, but was ultimately persuaded.
Great Barrier reef expedition, 1928-29: Scientific reports. London: Printed by order of Trustees of the British Museum, 1930- . [Older Printed Books Collection]
The Great Barrier Reef Expedition took place from 1928 to 1929 and was led by the English marine zoologist Sir Charles Maurice Yonge (1899-1986). The expedition focused on the Low Isles and investigated theories put forward by figures such as Charles Darwin. It laid the foundations for the scientific study of coral reef biology, physiology, and ecology.
Coral reefs occupy less than 0.1% of the oceans yet provided home for at least 25% of all marine species. It is a fragile ecosystem with each member of the community play a part in keeping the coral healthy. The health of reefs can provide an indicator of the broader health of the oceans. Warming ocean temperatures, among other stressors, have resulted in increasing cases of coral bleaching and the destruction of reefs.
Great Barrier reef expedition, 1928-29: Scientific reports. London: Printed by order of Trustees of the British Museum, 1930- . [Older Printed Books Collection]
The success of the expedition led to an increased interest in the Low Isles among scientists and tourists. This resulted in significant damage due to large numbers of shells and coral specimens being removed for both scientific and private collections.
